REFERENCE: http://www.chinesemusic.co.uk/english/InstrumentsPage.htm (1) BOWED-STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 弓弦乐 Bowed-stringed instruments became popular in China during the Sung Dynasty (960 to 1279 AD). The instruments are played using a bow made of horse hair to vibrate the strings. They generally have a soft, elegant tone, which is often used to produce a feeling of weeping or complaining. The most popular bowed strings include Erhu, Gaohu, Zhonghu, Dihu, Gehu and Di Gehu. Gaohu and Erhu are the outstanding ones among the instruments and are capable of performing in solos and concertos. In a modern Chinese Orchestra, the strings occupy a position comparable in importance to the violin in a western orchestra. 二胡 Erhu (2-string Fiddle, Chinese Violin) 、Tuning: d1, a1 Range: d1 - d4     Erhu also known as Huqin胡琴, the full name for Hu. Its early ancestor was known as Xiqin奚琴 (string instrument of a Mongolian tribe called Xi) in the tenth century.   The parts of an erhu include the neck, pegs, resonator, strings, qianjin, bridge, and bow. The resonator is a box made of hard wood. One end of the sound box is covered with snake skin which gives this instrument its distinctive mellow and bright, said to be the closest in sound to the human voice. The erhu has two strings, and the qianjin is installed between the pegs and the bridge for the control of pitch. The bow with horse hair is inserted and played between the two strings to generate the sound. The erhu's musical range spans about four octaves. Its two strings are typically tuned a fifth apart to d and a. Its sound is similar to a violin, but differs by being much more nasal in quality.   高胡 Gaohu (2-string Fiddle)   Tuning: a1, e2 Range: a1 - e4   The Gaohu is also known as a Yuehu 粤胡 (Cantonese hu) or Nanhu 南胡 (southern hu). Developed in the 1920's, the high hu has the same basic construction as the Erhu, with its tubular resonator somewhat smaller, a fourth or fifth higher in tuning. Its range can reach two octaves. In performance it is held vertically with the lower part of the resonator supported between the knees to control the noisy tone. With its sweet and delicate tone, the Gaohu is often in the treble of the bowed strings of the modern Chinese orchestra. Apart from solo and leader in the Cantonese Opera music, the Gaohu is also used in ensemble and accompaniment.     大提琴 Cello 低音大提琴 Bass   、 (2) PLUCKED-STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 弹拨乐 The plucked stringed instruments are used to a great extent in a Chinese traditional orchestra. There are many plucked stringed instruments compared to a western orchestra. There may be more types of plucked stringed instruments in China than any other country in the world. This is due to a long history and broad development of this instrument family. Musical scores that have survived from ancient times also favor plucked stringed instruments. Plucked stringed instruments are played by using a pick or finger nails to pluck the strings. The Yangqin is an exception which is played by using a pair of hammers to strike the strings. It is categorised as a member of the plucked stringed instrument probably because of its location on stage and its musical effects which are similar to other familiar members. The sound of plucked stringed instruments is lively and attractive. They can be performed in the forms of solo, ensemble or in an orchestra. The popular plucked stringed section consists of Pipa, Liuqin, Yueqin, Ruan, Sanxian, Guqin, Guzheng, Duxianqin, Yangqin 琵琶 Pipa (Pear Shaped Lute, Chinese guitar)   Tuning: A-d-e-a Range: A - c3     The word "Pi" meant "to play forward" and "Pa" meant "to play backward". The pipa had a half pear shaped sound box, a crooked neck, and normally 4 or 5 strings.   The Pipa arrived in China in the 4th century AD from Central Asia. The history of pipa dates back more than 2000 years. The Pipa occupies a very important role among the plucked strings because it has a magnificent tone and can produce very expressive sound, from gentle and pleasing music, to dramatic sound effects of horses galloping and battlefield scenes. Today the playing techniques are even more sophisticated.   The pipa is often used for solos and in ensembles or in modern Chinese orchestras. 柳琴 Liuqin (Small Lute, Treble Lute)   Tuning: g, d1, g1, d2 Range: g-g4   The Liuqin looks like a miniature pipa, but it has the shape of a willow leaf, this is where the Liuqin got its name from. It also has two sound holes on either sides of the strings. The Liuqin is also called tu pipa 土琵琶 (unrefined pipa) because of its appearance of a small pipa.   The performer plays it with a pick made traditionally of horn, but more commonly today, plastic. A modern Liuqin's front is made of tung wood and the reverse side, of red sandal. The four strings are steel wires. The frets, increased from 7 to as many as 24, are arranged in half step intervals. The plectrum is made of horn.   The sound of Liuqin is a little like mandolin, high pitched, bright and it can produce an exciting and agitating tune when played loudly, and a sweet and touching tune when played softly. Liuqin is often played in Chinese operas.     阮 Ruan (Long Neck Lute)   Zhong Ruan (alto) Tuning: A, d, a, d1 or G, d, a, e1 Range: A - a2 Da Ruan (tenor) Tuning: D, A, d, a or C, G, d, a Range: D - e1     The Ruan was once termed as Qin pipa 秦琵琶 (dating to the Qin dynasty between 221-207BC) or Yueqin 月琴 (moon shaped short neck lute). The name is a shortened form of Ruan Xian who was a musician in the 3rd century (the Six dynasties). Pictorial evidence, excavated from a tomb of his time in Nanjing, depicting Ruan Xians performance of this instrument, confirms that its construction was roughly the same as that of today.   The Ruan is now constructed as a family of soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, a development intended to increase its range and effectiveness in the modern Chinese orchestra. The alto (Zhong Ruan中阮) and the tenor (Da Ruan大阮) are commonly used. A plectrum is needed in performance. Mellow in tone quality, it is often seen in ensembles or in accompaniments, and also as a solo instrument in recent years.     三弦 Sanxian (3-String Lute/Banjo)     The name appears popularly as Xianzi弦子, in which zi is a diminutive suffix. Its ancestor is said to be plucked stringed instrument xiantao (a type from a rattle drum), commonly seen among the ancient people. The modern type has a resonator of padauk or red sandal, covered on both sides with python skin. Its fretless neck functions as its fingerboard. The strings are nylon coiled steel wires. Performers pluck with fingernails, generally without any plectrum. It is solid and sonorous in tone quality. Sanxian has a structure of a wooden drum covered with a snake skin, and an extended long and smooth finger board. It has a distinctive rich and harmonious sound with great volume and wide range. When it is played at the low pitch, it sounds like an old man humming a tune; when it is played at the high putch, it sounds like a young girl singing a song. 古筝 Guzheng (Half-tube Zither)   Also called "Zheng筝", it was popular as early as in the Warring States (475-221 BC), especially in the state of Qin in west China. That betrays the origin of the name qin zheng. Another hypothesis for its name came from a folk tale that the se (a large zither) was split in half to settle a family quarrel between two sons, thus creating the first two Guzheng. In Chinese character the lower portion for Guzheng happens to mean "quarrel". The sound box is constructed of wood, red sandal for its sides and bottom and wutong 梧桐wood (firmiana platanifolia) for the arched soundboard. According to the historical texts, it was described as having 12 strings before the Han and Jin period (206 BC-AD 420). In succeeding periods the number of strings kept increasing: 13 after the Tang and Song (618-1279), 15 or 16 since the Min and Qing (1368-1911), 21 since the 1960s and 24 or 26 at present. Each string is suspended over the upper soundboard by a single adjustable bridge as a device for fine tuning. The strings are traditionally silk, or steel wire with or without nylon coiling round, which has been more common since the 1960s. The strings are tuned to give three complete octaves of a pentatonic scale, sometimes of a heptatonic one.   The instrument is rich in playing techniques. The performer plucks the strings with his right hand fingernails (either real or simulated), while left hand fingers apply pressure to the strings to execute vibratos, glissandos, other embellishments and occasional plucking techniques. Sounding melodious and elegant, it is an important solo instrument now, and often in accompaniments as well. It has a loud and bright tone. If its strings are struck consecutively, it produces a sound like flowing water.     扬琴 Yangqin (Struck-box Zither, Hammer Dulcimer)   Besides daqin 打琴 (struck instrument with two beaters), one of its other names means "foreign instrument" in its original Chinese character, owing to the fact that the yangqin is an adaptation of the Persian santur or some Arabian type. The original was confined to the south-eastern coastal province of Guangdong late in the Ming dynasty (c. the 16th century). It spread later throughout the inner areas. The earliest type was arranged in two choirs (two rows of bridges), each having 8, later 10-12, courses (2 or 4 strings per course). In the 1960s it developed into a type with 3 choirs, 10 courses each, or a type with 4 choirs, 12 or 13 courses each. Special devices such as the grooves with balls on both sides were added for the convenience in modulating. One of the recent types, without grooves, is arranged in traditional Chinese 12 lü, similar to Western chromatic scale, for more convenient modulation. Its range is over 4 octaves. Under the box is a damper to control lingering tones. The instrument, bright and harmonious in tone, is often used for solos and in ensembles or in the accompaniment of local operas, narratives and other vocal singings.     (3) BLOWN-WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS 吹管乐   Blown-woodwind instruments produce sound by blowing to vibrate the tube and reeds of the instruments. The tone produced depends on the strength of the wind. Different strengths can produce pitches that differ by a perfect fifth or an octave. Its origin can be traced back to BC 1100, the Shang Dynasty, when there were Xun, He (Sheng), and Yan (Da Xiao) etc. The more popular wind instruments include Sheng, Suona, Di and Xiao.etc.       笛子 Dizi (Di, Transverse Flute)       Early in the reign of Emperor Wudi (141-88 BC) of the Han dynasty, the di flute was introduced to China from western areas. into china and standardised in construction through revisions. But broadly speaking, such features as its bamboo make, edged tone and side-holes have given the evidence of its existence in the ensembles of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC). Archaeological finds revealed one of the earliest type of flute unearthed from a tomb in Hubei province. It had a very similar construction as a modern bamboo type, only without the hole for membrane. Despite these old flutes being 8000 years old, they can still be played. The modern flute has an octave range of about two and a half. It is often bound with bands of silk or thread for crack proof. There are many types of flute, the bangdi 梆笛and qudi 曲笛 are the most common. The bangdi is the shorter and has a bright clear tone. It's name comes from the bangzi opera of northern china. The longer one known as qudi. It has a more mellow tone and is associated with the kunqu opera of central china. The di is very popular and is widely used for solos and in ensembles.     萧或洞箫 Xiao or Dongxiao (Notched Flute) Length: 80cm   The term dongxiao distinguishes the instrument as an end-blown notched flute. The prefix dong means "hole" in Chinese. The modern type is often made from a nine joint black bamboo, has six finger holes, five at the front and one at the rear, and 2-4 air holes at the lower end. The instrument has soft, subtle tones and is suitable for solo performances and duets with the qin zither or used in the sizhu (silk and bamboo instrument) chamber music traditions. The so called long feng xiao refers to the coupled flutes respectively engraved with dragon and phoenix patterns.     唢呐 Suona (Trumpet)     The suona, often called laba喇叭 (trumpet), first appeared in the Wei and Jin period (220-420). It has a penetrating tone quality, The suona is has a passionate and lively sound, particularly good at imitating the singing of hundreds of birds. Experienced players can control their breath with double lips to produce the characteristic soft tone (called tone of xiao) for a plaintive or sentimental effect. A smaller high pitched variety is known as haidi海笛 (sea-flute) is a fourth higher in range than the common type. In a modern Chinese orchestra the suona has a revised alto and bass variants with added keys. The instrument is commonly used as an accompaniment in theatres or to singing and dancing. It is also used for solos or ensembles on such occasions as weddings, funerals or other ceremonies and celebrations.     笙 Sheng (Mouth Organ)   It is said that the first female ancestor Nüwa or one of her followers called Sui invented the instrument. It is listed in the gourd category of the bayin classifications. The early type had a calabash base with pipes mounted through its holes in its top. According to ancient literature, the sheng symbolizes everything that breaks through the soil. The larger type is called chao and the smaller he. The earliest type ever seen is 14 piped unearthed from Zenghou Yi tomb in Hubei province.   During the period from the Southern Dynasties to the Tang dynasty (420-907) the instrument played an important role in court music. And in the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1911) it was used extensively both in folk instrumental ensembles and in accompaniment to local theatres and popular narratives. The bowl like wind chamber was large or small in size, square or round in shape, and variable in pitch arrangement as well. Nowadays the most common type has 17 pipes and the improved one for the contemporary compositions has 21-37 pipes, with keys and a metal resonating pot for the pipes to insert. The result is a bright and harmonious tone quality, a chromatically complete scale and an extended compass.     埙 Xun (Clay Vessel Flute)       The Xun was said to be made of baked clay by the legendary Bao Xin Gong the first male ancestor in Chinese myth. It falls into the category of earth in the traditional bayin classifications of musical instruments based on eight kinds of materials (metal, stone, silk, bamboo, gourd, earth, hide, and wood).   7000 years ago a single-finger-hole type was found in Hemudu Village, Zhejiang province. The instruments with 1-5 finger holes were from areas such as Banpo Village (Xian, c. 000-3000BC). Xun flutes varied in shape ranging from an olive, a ball, a fish, or an egg, most with flattened bottoms. Its construction was standardised in the Shang dynasty (1766-1122BC). It is generally pear shaped with five finger holes, three at the front and two at the rear.     (4) PERCUSSION 打击乐   The history of percussion instruments in China is longer than any other category of traditional instruments. The character of 'drum' was first found in the inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells of the Shang Dynasty. At that time (BC 1562 - 1066) more than 50% of instruments were percussion. Percussion instruments produce sound by striking on their surfaces. Common material used for making percussion instruments in the past were gold, rock, wood and bamboo. The percussion section is the most important section in Chinese opera, particularly in "martial" scenes known as wu-chang. The player of the bangu, directs the rest of the orchestra through his different methods and positions of striking his instrument. He has control over the overall development of the action and creation of atmosphere, and is equivalent to the conductor of a western style orchestra. Because of the richness of timbre, sound and variety of Chinese percussion instruments, they are frequently used in western style musical compositions. A large gong can create a stately and imposing atmosphere; dramatic effects can be achieved with the tanggu, and muyu and Ching also can produce an atmosphere of mystery. Percussion Instruments were easy to learn and play. As the instrument can produce different sound effects, it is frequently used in joyful and exciting occasions such as harvest, marriage and dragon boat as well as more as well as memorial ceremonies. The more popular percussion instruments include Luo, Gu, Bo, and Bianzhong.       板鼓 Bangu (Single-headed Frame Drum) (ban: flat board; gu: drum)         It is also commonly called Jing Bangu 京板鼓 (bangu for Peking opera) and Danpi (single drumhead). The drum's frame is constructed of thick wedges of hard wood glued together in a circle, wrapped with a metal band. Its body is bell mouthed in shape, open at the bottom. Its top surface (C.25cm), covered with a piece of pig or cow-hide, has a small convex central circular opening (about 5 or 6 cm in diameter), which is called the Guxin (drum heart), the actual sounding position. The player strikes on this central area with a pair of bamboo sticks. The type used for Peking opera and other northern musical dramas, with a smaller central striking area, has a relatively solid tone quality. The type used for the southern gong and drum ensemble, with a larger striking area , is loose and soft in tone. The southern type is fit for solos with a variety of techniques and rhythms. The Jing Bangu leads the percussion section in the instrumental ensemble of the Peking opera.     堂鼓 Tanggu (Medium-sized Barrel Drum) (tang: hall; gu: drum)     Diameter: (large drum) over 1m; (small drum)20-30cm   The drum is listed as "hide" in the traditional bayin classifications. The common type is similar in shape to a barrel. Its wooden shell, entirely painted red with decorative patterns, is covered with two drumheads of cowhide or pig skin. Four lateral iron rings around the shell allow the drum to be vertically suspended in a frame. It is struck with a pair of wooden beaters. Tone quality can be modified by moving the point of striking closer to the centre of the surface, with varying dynamics. The Tanggu is constructed mainly in two types. The larger one can produce a deep and sonorous tone and the smaller is solid and forceful in tone quality. The drum is traditionally used with other instruments like luo (gong) and bo (cymbals) in folk festivals and celebrations, and in ensembles or in accompaniments as well.     锣 Luo (Gong) Diameter: 35-50cm(larger type) 8-23cm(smaller type)   Chinese gongs are made of high-tin bronze, hammered into a sifter shape. Its central resonating area can be either flat or convex. At least its long history can be traced back to the early Western Han period (206BC-AD 24) according to an archaeological find from a tomb of that period in Guangxi. In the Tang text (618-907) it is called Shaluo (sand gong), the earlier evidence in classical literature. Modern varieties are great in number with varying tone qualities. The name is usually preceded by a prefix to specify each different kind. The largest type (over 120cm in diameter) called Dachaoluo, with the name from its deep and grave tone, is used in weddings, funerals and temple ceremonies. The smallest goujiao luo (dog-call gong), only 8cm in diameter, can often be seen in theatre instrumental ensembles in southern Fujian province. Both the larger and the smaller include a series of types under different names and in varying tone qualities. Much more are the derivative types in ethnic minorities with individual acoustic features, functions and performing styles.     钹 Bo (Pair of bronze cymbals)   They were frequently used in Sui and Tang dynasties (581-907) with varying designs. Now it is commonly made of high-tin bronze.   The performer strikes the pair together. The most common type now is the Jingbo (the prefix jing referring to Beijing), a name from the instruments use in the Peking opera. This type is clear and forceful in tone quality. It is also used in other regional opera genres and instrumental ensembles, and is one of the four major instruments (drum, large and small gongs, and cymbals) in the jubilant Luogu (gong and drum) music. In local operas the instruments is often for the accompaniment of acrobatics fighting     木鱼 Muyu (Woodblock or Slit drum) (mu: wooden; yu: fish) Diameter: 5-50cm (or more) 8-16cm (types in sets)   It was used originally to accompany Buddhist chant only. An account of this instrument was found in the literature of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644): "The muyu is carved from a block of wood and into the shape of a fish, then its interior is hollowed out. Sounds can be produced by striking" Since the Qing dynasty (1645-1911) the instrument has appeared in folk instrumental ensembles. The muyu is mostly made of mulberry or Chinese toon wood. The larger type is primarily used in Buddhist temples, but recently appears in sets, varying in diameters and tone qualities. The set is mainly used for regular rhythms in the accompaniment.       云锣 Yunluo (Set of small bronze gongs) (yun: cloud; Luo: gong)     The Yunluo was first mentioned in China as yun-ao in the Yuan dynasty (1271 - 1368). The small gongs in set, usually 10 in different pitches, are suspended vertically in the same wooden frame. Each is attached to a cubicle within the frame by cords. The gongs are all of the same diameter but of varying thickness. In tuning, thicker dimensions give higher pitches, and thinner ones, lower. The instruments are struck with a small beater.   In the redesigned type the number of gongs is increased, ranging from 29 to 38, and two mallets with either hard or soft tips, are used for different tonal effects. One sounds clang and solid and the other soft and drifting. Owing to the enlarged range, modification in thickness cannot produce any other pitches. Thus varying diameters are used for the new tones.   The yunluo are mostly seen in instrumental ensembles, and recently for solos as well.     编钟 Bianzhong (Collected Bronze Bells) (bian: collected; zhong: bell)   This instrument, listed as "metal", heads the bayin classifications. Its long history dates back to the Shang dynasty (1766-1122BC), when a set of 3 bronze bells was common, though the earlier pottery type of the late Stone Age was unearthed in Shaanxi province. From the 5th to the 3rd century BC the number of bells was increasing, mostly to 9 and a few to 13. The largest set ever seen was from the tomb of Zenghou Yi (the 5th century BC) in Hubei province. This archaeological find has become a focus of world academic attention. The set consists of 64 bells, hung in three layers. The upper ones are called niuzhong, i.e. bells with bronze loops for vertical suspension; those on the two lower layers are called yongzhong, i.e. bells with handles for suspension at a slight angle. Because of the bells shape two different pitches, a major or minor third apart, can be produced on any of the bells, depending on the two striking locations, the frontal or the lateral. 12 semi-tones are found in the set, with a total range of 5 octaves. The inscriptions on the bells unite to form a literature of a large tone system, valuable sources for the study of the musical culture in the period of the Warring States (475-221 BC). With the construction for two different pitches from a single bell and the unique casting technology, the bianzhong has established itself as the eighth wonder of the world.